occurred after chimpanzees split in evolutionary tree
show femur supports a partially upright torso (6 mya)
adaptions for better bipedalism, four toes shortened and stiff (3.6 mya)
might fall right before split to Homo, longer arms and small brain
tools by Australopithecus
tools by Anthropus
tools by Homo
evidence of fire by Homo erectus
first early ancestors that extensively traveled, around till 300,000 years ago
600,000 mya- 30,000 years ago, cranial capacity is large, built homes out of bones, jewelry, shells, pigment
found in Africa from 160,000 years ago; storage containers from eggs and geometric art
2-4% of genome in modern humans due to interbreeding
4-6% of genome in Melanesians due to interbreeding
driver for evolution and diversification
language gene
important for language processing
bundles of nerve fibers that connect language processing
genes encode for a protein that helps sense oxygen, mutation in gene from adaption to high altitudes
mutation in this gene is due to high altitudes
alleles advantageous in the past (thrifty and stored nutrients well) may be detrimental in the modern world with changing lifestyles
limited nutrition during prenatal development causes an individual to switch to 'starvation mode' physiology for life
epigenetic effect (methylation) may be responsible for coupling fetal nutrition with establishment of a particular physiology that persists and can be passed on
abnormal condition affecting an organism
a disease that is caused by the invasion of a host by another organism (infection)
an infectious disease transmitted between animal species (host switching)
segmented RNA virus, typically target HA strand, evolves very fast
refers to the genetic patterns of variation in pathogens
genetic material from different strains gets mixed into new combinations within an individual
system that allows for the creation of so many antibodies to assist in fighting pathogens
a maturing B cell has hundreds of three classes of gene segments and uses only one to create an antibody unique to the B cell
essential for VDJ recombination, once were transposons, could have been brought in by a virus
evolution of the adaptive immune system, VDJ recombination, and RAG genes
prime the immune system with either live, partially dead pathogens to train the immune system to recognize the real pathogens when it comes along
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